Auguste Henri Jacob

Auguste-Henri Jacob, better known as the Zouave Jacob, was born on March 6, 1828, in Saint-Martin-des-Champs, Saône-et-Loire, and died on October 23, 1913, in Paris. He was a renowned French healer during the Second Empire.

Jacob, the third trombone in the band of the , first came to public attention in 1866 at the Châlons camp, where he performed some healings attributed to the supposed effects of his fluid. In the following year, his purported healings in greater numbers on in Paris made him famous, and he was notably caricatured by André Gill. However, this fame was short-lived, as two marshals soon debunked the press reports of an alleged healing.

Subsequently, the Zouave, who continued his healing activities until his death, garnered significantly less media attention, except for instances when he was prosecuted for the , which established legal precedents. He died in 1913, leaving unresolved the questions of whether he was a charlatan or a miracle worker, and whether these healings were due to something beyond his powers of persuasion. According to several sources, his authoritarian healing methods foreshadowed those of evangelists. Several books appeared under his name, though it is uncertain if he was the author. After his death, his grave in the became the site of persistent devotion.

Background Music of the . Instruments by Adolphe Sax were introduced by decree in 1854. Auguste-Henri Jacob was born in Saint-Martin-des-Champs, a locality that was subsequently incorporated into Saint-Jean-des-Vignes and subsumed by Chalon-sur-Saône. His father was the proprietor of a chemical products factory in the area. Following the demise of his mother, his father, who had remarried, placed him in the care of his grandmother. He was later transferred to the 1st Horse Chasseurs, where he learned to play the trombone in four months. He concluded his military career with service in the 16th Artillery and . he terminated his employment and commenced work in a circus in Marseille. He performed trapeze under a free balloon floating 150 meters above the ground. Following the accidental demise of his two acrobatic colleagues, he joined a Soullié circus in Nîmes, where he performed equestrian acrobatics with a monkey he had trained. He also performed at provincial fairs in Oran and Marseille, handling weights of 25 kilos.

Châlons camp The Châlons, a military camp established in 1857 in Mourmelon, attracted considerable public interest due to its maneuvers. The Zouaves of the Guard, whose camp was situated close to the imperial residence, consistently drew a substantial number of visitors, who were drawn to their tanned complexions, prominent beards, and distinctive attire.

In 1866, while his Zouave regiment was stationed at the Châlons camp, Jacob commenced his career as the "most renowned healer of the nineteenth century." The initial incidents are reported to have occurred during the summer months, although the details vary depending on the source. He is said to have healed either a young girl or a cholera patient by placing his hand on their abdomen, which resulted in "violent reactions" and "convulsions in bed." Alternatively, he is purported to have healed several of his ailing comrades in the infirmary, either through simple touch or merely by being present.

When an officer at the camp inquired as to whether he truly believed he had cured genuine illnesses, Jacob responded, "It is not my responsibility to ascertain whether they were genuinely ill or if I genuinely healed them."

In an article published on August 1, L'Écho de l'Aisne reported that numerous convoys of individuals with ailments were being transported to the Châlons camp. The article further noted that many of these individuals had returned to their homes with improved health. On August 4, the same newspaper referred to "an actual army of the sick" arriving daily at the camp Military authorities intervened to prevent them from entering the camp without special permission, assigning a guard to Jacob

Subsequently, Jacob established a consulting office in a hotel in Mourmelon, where he could treat up to eighteen individuals per session. He later relocated to a larger hotel, where groups of twenty-five to thirty could attend.

Marshal Regnaud de Saint-Jean d'Angély, the camp commander, brought the sessions to a close on August 7, forbidding the public from approaching Jacob.

A controversial fluid

The period of the Châlons events was characterized by a state of flux and instability, as evidenced by Honoré Daumier's series of caricatures, published in 1853, which he titled "Fluid-Maniac". The contemporaries of the Zouave were willing to attribute his spectacular healings to "a law of unknown nature, exercised through an individual endowed with an intense magnetic power." However, multiple paradigms competed to explain the situation. These included those of the mesmerists, who were divided into several schools, and the spiritualists, whose popularity continued to grow. As Le Magnétiseur noted, each group claimed Jacob as one of their own:

Mesmerist explanations

Léonide Pigeaire in 1838, blindfolded, demonstrating somnambulistic vision. Jacob's achievements are initially attributed to those of a magnetizer by the mesmerists. Mesmer—whom Jacob characterizes as a "martyr" who sought to "convince the world of scholars, especially doctors, his colleagues" —held the conviction that humans were interconnected with the extraterrestrial realm through the currents and fluctuations of fluidic fields. He postulated that the harmonious distribution of these fluids was a prerequisite for optimal health and endeavored to rectify imbalances through magnetism. As Mesmer perceived it, the objective of the magnetizer was to reinstate the equilibrium of these flows through the utilization of "passes" to "magnetize" the patient. Amand Marie Jacques de Chastenet de Puységur, a disciple of Mesmer, employed a technique he termed "magnetic somnambulism" for therapeutic purposes. This concept, while foreshadowing the practice of hypnosis, Subsequently, magnetizers induced a hypnotic state in "somnambulists" to facilitate clairvoyance, description, explanation, and treatment of illnesses such as rheumatism, stomach aches, insomnia, and amenorrhea. These mesmerists, who retained their influence around the time of the events at Camp Châlons —Louis Figuier even noting that magnetism was "the main exercise of military life" —based their practices on the results of somnambulistic treatments, viewed themselves as scientists and were skeptical of the trend of table-turning and the theories developed by American spiritualists to explain phenomena associated with the Fox sisters or the clairvoyant Daniel Dunglas Home.

By 1866, mesmerism had diverged into many distinct schools of thought:

Kardecist explanation

Although Jacob does not explicitly reject the concept of magnetism, he states that he is uncertain whether to attribute his "magnetic power" to spiritualism or magnetism. He does, however, mention his "initiation into spirit science." In 1897, he informed Jules Chancel, a journalist, that he had attended a spiritism session "by chance" and later recognized the existence of spirits and their potential for utilization in various capacities. However, it was challenging to differentiate between "conviction spiritism" and "recreational spiritism." Some authors have even postulated the existence of a "latent spiritism" that pervaded society in a context where the ties between the Church and the State were becoming increasingly tenuous. The practice was particularly prevalent in the military, especially among the 3rd Lancers, where Jacob had previously served before becoming a Zouave. The practice of healing mediumship experienced growth in France from 1865 onwards, with medical authorities demonstrating a relatively tolerant stance towards the illicit practice of medicine. Kardec asserts that this practice is exempt from the aforementioned legislation, as it does not prescribe any specific treatment. Following the successful demonstrations of healing at Camp Châlons, Kardec, who regarded spiritism as a scientific method based on observed facts, asserted that "healing mediumship does not seek to supplant medicine and doctors; it merely seeks to prove to them that there are things they do not know and invites them to study them." Spiritualist seances photographed by Frederick Hudson in London in 1872. In 1865, met a Zouave at the Paris Spiritist Society. Lachatre described the Zouave as a "fervent spiritist follower and writing medium" who received "mediumistic communications" of "remarkable superiority." In 1866, Allan Kardec asserted that he had been acquainted with Jacob for an extended period as a writing medium and ardent proponent of Spiritism. Furthermore, he noted that Jacob had initiated preliminary efforts at healing mediumship before his tenure at Camp Châlons. He was an instrument of external intelligence, with therapeutic prescriptions by spiritist somnambulists being dictated by spirit doctors, such as the "white-fluid spirits" frequently referenced by Jacob. Kardec developed the concept of the perispirit (peri spiritus) as a "material fluidic envelope" surrounding the immaterial soul, which he believed enabled mediums to see and communicate with spirits. Kardec's explanatory model integrated elements of magnetism into a larger system:

As notes, the Zouave Jacob's "healing mediumship" was not unique: in 1867, in Bordeaux, a carpenter named Simonet, claiming to be a spiritist and nicknamed “the sorcerer of Caudéran,” performed hundreds of healings.

Rue de la Roquette The courtyard of 80, , during Zouave Jacob's sessions in 1867.

In a subsequent interview conducted five years later by a journalist from , the subject was described in a manner that was strikingly similar to the previous account. This account pertained to an incident in which the individual in question was convicted for public indecency, specifically for urinating in his garden on Rue de Ménilmontant. Jacob informed the journalist that he had "studied Allan Kardec" and subsequently "discovered by accident" that he possessed a healing fluid. He provided an additional explanation: "It is my belief that there are celestial bodies which, like the sun's emission of warmth to Earth, dispense a healing fluid that is received or stored by certain individuals."

Nevertheless, Jacob was rarely referenced in the press, and when he was, it was predominantly in the context of judicial developments, which invariably followed his legal difficulties, however minor. His fines in 1887 and 1891, resulting from his dog's bites to passersby, were consistently featured in headlines. For example, in an 1891 recollection of an 1887 courtroom incident, the judge brought up Jacob's previous conviction for illegal medical practice. Jacob protested that he only used "the influence of a look in the eyes," which prompted the judge to quip, "In that case, you really should have looked your dog in the eyes to stop it from biting people." Customers bring Zouave cloths and bottles to soak in his fluid, as well as flowers for his 83rd birthday. Hygienic posters on the wall. In 1891 and 1892, Jacob was charged with two additional instances of illicit medical practice. In January 1893, he was tried for a fourth time on these same charges, now classified as criminal offenses under the November 30, 1892 legislation. To defend himself, Jacob asserted that his purported healings were the result of hypnotism, a practice explicitly excluded from the purview of the law in question. This assertion prompted the prosecution to question the applicability of the law to Jacob's actions. Ultimately, the judges ruled:

Thus, his exception was denied, and the Zouave was fined again. Jacob appealed, arguing that the new law required a treatment, which he claimed he did not provide; however, the judgment was upheld because “the meaning of the word treatment is broad [and] cannot be arbitrarily restricted.”

In 1909, he was once more prosecuted for the practice of medicine without a license. In his defense, the defendant asserted that he did not engage in the practice of magnetism but rather served as a "healing medium, assisted by spirits." His counsel advanced the argument that in 1867, Napoleon III had expressed a desire that Jacob never be prosecuted following a "decisive" intervention on behalf of the ailing imperial prince. (Returning to the topic: Jules Troubat, the last secretary of Sainte-Beuve, recounts that the chief doctor of Val-de-Grâce reported to the latter that upon his return from the camp at Châlons, he had been extensively questioned by him, who sought his opinion on the Zouave Jacob.) The court concluded:

“Suggestion et musicothérapie mêlées” (suggestion and music therapy mingled), summed up La Chronique médicale in 1913. That same year, an article in the British Medical Journal described the trombone as the “therapeutic agent” used by the Zouave to treat the sick. While health professionals were taken aback by the leniency of the verdict, Jean Lecoq penned an editorial in Le Petit Journal, entitled "Well Judged." In it, he argued that "we should leave these traditional, popular healers in peace, who, harming no one, do some good for a few." However, the prosecution appealed, and the case was retried. On this occasion, the Zouave was sentenced to a one-hundred-franc fine and two hundred francs in damages to the Seine Physicians' Syndicate. The rationale behind this decision was as follows:

Xavier Pelletier, writing in L'Intransigeant, awarded this ruling the “palms of martyrdom,” while Jean Lecoq in Le Petit Journal expressed outrage: “In a sentence like the one just handed down, there is more than just odiousness; there is ridicule.”

Jacob filed an appeal, with his lawyer arguing that the healing was carried out by an immaterial fluid communicated by spirits, which the Zouave merely transmitted. The appeal was dismissed in April 1911 with a ruling stating that "any act or advice aimed at curing or improving a diseased state is considered treatment."

The end of the Zouave

In the final years of his life, the Zouave resided in the Batignolles district, where he was held in high regard. In his account of the visit, René Schwaeblé described the subject as "robust and smiling, wise and mocking, fierce and subtle." He also noted that "his patients ... embraced him with tenderness." He was a staunch vegetarian, regarding meat as an "abominable scourge," and consumed solely vegetables, fruits, eggs, and Gruyère cheese, accompanied by red wine that he procured daily from a nearby bistro.

He died in the autumn of 1913, at his home on in Paris, leaving unresolved questions regarding the relative merits of the miraculous cures attributed to Bernadette Soubirous and the Zouave, as well as the nature of his spiritual practices, which have been variously described as a "kind of spiritist apostolate" or a "naive charlatan." Some have described him as "bizarre" and "rather ridiculous," citing his belief in the "cooperation of spirits."

He was initially interred in Saint Ouen Cemetery, but his remains were subsequently exhumed and relocated to , where his sister had a private vault constructed for him. This vault was inscribed with the words "Jesus Christna, Redeemer of the Hindus," (This equates to INRI in abbreviation.)

Publications

Journals

Twenty-five years after the Zouave's demise, in 1938, Le Journal observed that his grave continued to be a site of pilgrimage for devoted admirers. In a 2008 publication, Anne-Marie Minvielle observed that the Zouave's tomb in Gentilly continues to attract individuals seeking spiritual solace, as evidenced by recent plaques of gratitude. Many devotees, during their meditations, come to touch Jacob's bust, which is observed to have a polished appearance on the heart side. In 1985, Vincent Delanglade posited that this devotion evidenced an "ongoing efficacy." Finally, in 2017, Michel Dansel concluded that the tomb is the most visited in the Gentilly cemetery.

Some contemporary works make reference to him:

The Zouave Jacob is a character in three novels by : La 25e Heure (2015), Le Chrysanthème noir (2016), and Paris-Capitale (2017). He also appears in La Canine impériale by and Studio Lou Petitou. Honoring the Zouave's fondness for the trombone, jazz musicians (alto saxophone), Mauro Gargano (double bass), and Dario De Filippo (percussions) named a CD after him, released in 2013.