Zayn al-Abidin the Great

Giyath al-Din Shah Rukh Shahi Khan (; – 12 May 1470), more famously known as Zayn al-Abidin the Great , was the ninth sultan of the Kashmir Sultanate. He was given the mandate to rule in 1418 in the absence of his brother, Ali Shah before defeating him in the ensuing civil war in 1420. After his illness and subsequent death, his son Haider Shah succeeded him in 1470. He was famously referred to as Buḍshāh by his subjects.

The first 35 years of his reign are described by Jonaraja in the Rajatarangini Dvitiya, while the subsequent years are described by his pupil, Srivara, in the Rajatarangini Tritiya. The Sultan also composed poetry in Persian under the pen name of Qutb.

His fifty-year reign is widely revered as a Golden age of peace, religious tolerance, and economic prosperity in medieval Kashmir. Trade networks expanded through diplomatic missions to foreign courts, contributing to the growth of major commercial centres such as Srinagar and Anantnag. His rule also witnessed a vibrant cultural renaissance, with developments in education, literature, architecture and the arts. Additionally, Kashmiri architecture during his reign incorporated Indo-Islamic influences.

He was succeeded by his son Haji Khan, who later assumed the regnal title Haider Shah.

Early life

Birth and background Zayn al-Abidin was born as Shah Rukh in at the royal palace in Srinagar. He was the second son of Sultan Sikandar Shah and Mira Khatun, the daughter of Firuz, the chief of Ohind. Sikander Shah had married Mira Khatun following his military victory over Firuz early in his reign. He was given the name Shahi Khan as a prince.

During his youth, Zayn al-Abidin was known as Shahi Khan and was tutored by Maulana Kabir, who is described as a Kashmiri scholar and polymath. Some accounts suggest Kabir held liberal views and may have influenced Shahi Khan’s humanistic outlook. Years in Samarkand Shahi Khan was sent to Samarkand by his father as part of a diplomatic mission to Timur’s court. He spent seven to eight years in Samarkand, during which he is reported to have observed the city's administrative practices, crafts, and architecture.

Following Timur's death in 1405, Shahi Khan prepared to return to Kashmir. Later accounts state that he returned accompanied by artisans and craftsmen, including paper-makers, bookbinders, carpet weavers, saddle makers, and other skilled workers, who contributed to the development of local industries during his reign.

Accession

Appointment as wazir and regency Upon his return, Shahi Khan assisted his father and later his elder brother, Sultan Ali Shah, in state affairs. On 30 December 1416 (on Eid al-Adha), Shahi Khan assassinated the rebellious wazir Hamsabhatta at the Eidgah. Following this event, Ali Shah is reported to have appointed Shahi Khan as his new wazir.

Shahi Khan was later entrusted with the administration of the sultanate, during, Ali Shah's departure on a pilgrimage to Mecca. During this period, Ali Shah granted Shahi Khan the title of (Ornament of Worshippers).

Ali Shah later abandoned his pilgrimage after reaching the court of his father-in-law, Raja Bhim Dev of Jammu, and raised an army consisting of soldiers from Jammu and Rajauri in an attempt to reclaim the throne. According to historical accounts, Zayn al-Abidin relinquished his recently acquired authority without resistance, though the reasons for this remain disputed.

Civil war Zayn al-Abidin retreated to Sialkot, where he formed an alliance with its ruler, Jasrat Khokar. A civil war erupted when Ali Shah marched against Jasrat's forces. The two armies met at Thanna, where Jasrat defeated Ali Shah's forces. According to Srivara, Ali Shah was killed by Jasrat. However, later Persian chronicles claim that he escaped the battlefield.

Zayn al-Abidin was then able to return to the capital city of Srinagar, where he was welcomed by his subjects. However, Ali Shah launched a counter-offensive with the aid of the Raja of Jammu. Zayn al-Abidin marched against him through the Baramulla pass and confronted him at Uri, where Ali Shah suffered another defeated. Accounts of Ali Shah's final fate differ; some state that he may have died in captivity, while others suggest that he was executed by Khokhar. Zayn al-Abidin was subsequently crowned Sultan for his second and primary reign in 1420 (or 1422 according to Abul Fazl).

Military campaigns Sasnu coin issued by Zayn al-Abidin, To maintain the territorial integrity of the Kashmir Sultanate, Zayn al-Abidin undertook campaigns to recover frontier territories that had broken away during the reign of Ali Shah. He successfully re-annexed Ladakh and Baltistan regions which had originally conquered by his grandfather Shihabu'd-Din Shah but later asserted independence until Sikander Shah restored control. However, during the reign of Ali Shah, these territories once again began to assert their independence. He also regained control over Ohind, whose chief had previously been subdued by Sikander Shah but declared independence during the period of rule by Ali Shah.

During his reign, Kashmir also faced an external threat from Kashgar. According to contemporary chronicles, the King of Kashgar dispatched an invading force toward the Kashmir Valley. In response, Zayn al-Abidin assembled a large army, reportedly consisting of 20,000 cavalry and 100,000 infantry. The Kashmiri forces engaged the invaders in a battle lasting several days and ultimately repelled the Kashgar army.

Administration Zayn al-Abidin introduced series of administrative and economic reforms aimed at strengthening state authority and stabilizing the economy. To improve law and order, he instituted a system of collective responsibility under which village communities were held accountable for crimes committed within their jurisdictions.

He also implemented measures to regulate commodity prices and stabilize the currency, which had been debased under earlier rulers. In addition, he prohibited provincial governors from imposing arbitrary or unauthorized taxes on the peasantry, thereby providing tax relief to rural communities.

His reign was further marked by extensive public works projects, including the construction of irrigation canals, bridges, urban settlements, and other civic infrastructure intended to improve agriculture productivity and facilitate trade.

Religious policies Zayn al-Abidin is noted for his policy of religious tolerance and public welfare. In contrast to the policies associated with the reign of his father, Sultan Sikandar, he adopted a more accommodative approach toward the diverse religious communities of Kashmir.

He abolished the jizya imposed on non-Muslims in Kashmir. He also encouraged the return of Hindus who had left Kashmir during earlier persecutions,

Foreign relations Zayn al-Abidin maintained diplomatic and cultural relations with several contemporary states and dynasties across Asia and the Islamic world, including the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, the Timurid Empire in Khorasan, the Sharifate of Mecca, and the sultanates of Bengal, Sindh, and Gujarat. Diplomatic contacts were also maintained with the Tomaras of Gwalior, the Phagmodrupa dynasty of Tibet and the Kar-Kiya dynasty of Gilan.

Historical records report that embassies were exchanged and gifts presented between courts. Contemporary accounts note that Zayn al-Abidin valued scholarly and literary gifts more highly than precious objects

Patronage of education and arts

Dar-ul-Ulum at Naushahr Zayn al-Abidin established an educational institution near his royal palace in his capital city of Naushahr (present day Nowshera in Srinagar), referred to in contemporary sources as Dar-ul-Ulum (residential university) of Naushahr or the Madrassah-i-Sultani. The institution developed under the rectorship of the scholar Maulana Kabir, who had served as the Sultan's tutor and was also appointed as Shaykh al-Islām. He is described as being proficient in Persian, Sanskrit, and Tibetan. He established a state-sponsored translation bureau (Dar-ul-Tarjuma) under the supervision of the educational establishment at Naushahr.

At this bureau, a number of works Arabic and Sanskrit works were translated into Persian and Kashmiri. By his royal order, the Mahabharata and Kalhana's Rajatarangini were translated from Sanskrit into Persian. According to Walter Lawrence, each room had the capacity to accommodate 500 men, and the water was supplied to the building from the Sind River. A major educational institution was also established near the royal Palace.

Later life and death

Succession disputes In the later period of his reign, Zayn al-Abidin faced internal family conflict following the death of his consort, Taj Khatoon. His sons, Adam Khan, Haji Khan and Bahram Khan, became engaged in disputes over succession and rebelled against him. Although he was able to suppress the rebellion.

In his final years, Zayn al-Abidin's health deteriorated. he is described as having suffered from cognitive decline accompanied by symptoms interpreted as Paranoia, while some modern interpretations have characterized his conditions as schizophrenia. In fear of poisoning, he reportedly avoided food prepared at court and gradually withdrew from active involvement in administrative affairs.

Death Zayn al-Abidin died at noon on Friday, 12 May 1470 (Julian Calendar). Contemporary and later chroniclers state that he reigned for fifty-two years. He died at the age of sixty-nine. He was buried at Mazar-e-Salatin, the royal cemetery of the Shah Mir dynasty in Srinagar, near the grave of his father.

Following his death, Kashmir reportedly observed several days of mourning for the Sultan, during which people are said to have fasted on the day of mourning. According to Srivara, ministers, servants, and citizens participated in funeral rites and lamentations, while the Sultan's body was carried in a litter accompanied by royal insignia such as the umbrella and chamara (ceremonial whisk). He was succeeded by Haji Khan, who assumed the regnal name Haidar Shah.

Legacy Zayn al-Abidin is regarded by both medieval chroniclers and modern historians as one of the most prominent rulers of Kashmir. Historian Mohibbul Hasan describes him as undoubtedly the greatest of the sultans of Kashmir, and credited his reign with bringing half a century of peace, prosperity and benevolent rule to Kashmir.