Uthman ibn Affan

Uthman ibn Affan (; 17 June 656) was the third and longest-reigned Rashidun caliph ruling from 644 until his assassination in 656. He was also a second cousin, son-in-law, and senior companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and played a major role in early Islamic history. He is most famously known for the compilation and distribution of the standardized version of the Quran during his reign, known as the Uthmanic codex. This standardization established a uniform written text of the Quran, and the Uthmanic codex forms the basis of the Quran used by Muslims today.

Before the second caliph Umar died, he had appointed a council of six companions to select his successor. Uthman, then aged 68, was elected to succeed him, becoming the oldest person to hold the caliphate. During his reign, the caliphate expanded further into Persia and reached as far as the provinces of Khurasan and Transoxiana in the east, to Ifriqiya and the Iberian Peninsula in the west. Uthman also instituted centralized reforms aimed at creating a more cohesive governing structure and fostered rapid economic growth.

However, the last years of his reign were marked by discontent that eventually evolved into an armed revolt, as opposition groups gathered in Medina and besieged his residence. Despite efforts by his supporters and companions to defend him, Uthman was ultimately assassinated by the rebels in 656 CE, an event that contributed to the political and sectarian conflicts that followed. Sunni Muslim tradition considers him the third rightly-guided caliph.

Family and early life

Uthman was born in Mecca within the Hejaz in 576. He belonged to the prominent Meccan family of the Banu Umayya, descending specifically through his grandfather Abu al-As. His full lineage is recorded as Uthman ibn Affan ibn Abi al-As ibn Umayya ibn Abd Shams, with his mother being Arwa bint Kurayz ibn Rabia ibn Habib ibn Abd Shams. Through his mother, who was a first cousin of Muhammad, Uthman was related to him. Growing up within this affluent clan, Uthman established himself as a very wealthy and successful merchant among the Quraysh. He also had one sister named Amina.

Companionship of Muhammad Conversion to Islam On returning from a business trip to Syria in 611, Uthman learned of Muhammad's declared mission. After a discussion with Abu Bakr, Uthman decided to convert to Islam, and Abu Bakr brought him to Muhammad to declare his faith. Uthman thus became one of the earliest converts to Islam, following Ali, Zayd ibn Haritha, Abu Bakr and a few others. His conversion to Islam angered his uncle, Hakam ibn Abi Al-As, who strongly opposed Muhammad's teachings. He is listed as one of the twenty two Meccans at the dawn of Islam who knew how to write.

Migration to Abyssinia To escape persecution, Uthman and his wife Ruqayya migrated to Abyssinia (modern Ethiopia) in April 615, along with ten Muslim men and three women. Scores of Muslims joined them later. As Uthman already had some business contacts in Abyssinia, he continued to practice his profession as a trader and he continued to flourish.

After four years, the news spread among the Muslims in Abyssinia that the Quraysh of Mecca had accepted Islam, and this persuaded Uthman, Ruqayya and 39 Muslims to return. However, when they reached Mecca, they found that the news about the Quraysh's acceptance of Islam was false; nevertheless, Uthman and Ruqayya re-settled in Mecca.

In 628, when Muhammad and the Muslims headed toward Mecca to perform Umrah, they were stopped at Hudaybiyya by the Quraysh. After other attempts at negotiation failed, Muhammad dispatched Uthman as his envoy to inform the Meccan leaders that the Muslims intended a peaceful pilgrimage. The Quraysh received Uthman well and offered him the opportunity to perform the circumambulation of the Kaaba, but he declined to do so while Muhammad was barred from entering.

When Uthman’s return was delayed, rumors spread that he had been killed. In response, Muhammad summoned his companions to the Pledge of the Tree (Bay'ah al-Ridwan), where they pledged their fidelity. Because Uthman was absent, Muhammad placed his own hand over his other, declaring it to represent Uthman’s pledge. Shortly thereafter, Uthman returned safely, and the negotiations concluded with the signing of the treaty.

In 630, Uthman played a significant role in the Expedition of Tabuk by providing the largest individual financial contribution for the army of 30,000 men and 10,000 cavalry. Ibn Ishaq records that Uthman personally equipped one-third of the army and donated 1,000 gold dinars to support the campaign, a contribution noted for its unprecedented scale among the companions.

Final years with Muhammad According to Shia sources, Uthman was present at the event of Ghadir Khumm. Sunni sources either deny that this event even took place or interpret it as Muhammad merely honoring Ali, whereas Shia sources consider it a declaration of Ali’s leadership, with Uthman among those who pledged allegiance.

Role during Abu Bakr's caliphate (632–634) Uthman had a very close relationship with Abu Bakr, as it was due to him that Uthman had converted to Islam. When Abu Bakr was selected as the caliph, Uthman was the first person after Umar to offer his allegiance. During the Ridda Wars (Wars of Apostasy), Uthman remained in Medina, acting as Abu Bakr's adviser. On his deathbed, Abu Bakr dictated his will to Uthman and Ibn Awf, saying that his successor was to be Umar.

Election of Uthman

Umar, on his deathbed, formed a committee of six people, all from the Muhajirun (early Meccan converts), to choose the next caliph from amongst themselves. This committee was: Ali ibn Abi Talib Uthman ibn Affan Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas Zubayr ibn al-Awwam Talha ibn Ubayd Allah

According to History of al-Yaʿqūbī, Umar appointed Abu Talha al-Ansari to this task and said: If four people gave an opinion and two disagreed, behead those two, and if three agreed and three disagreed, the three people whom Abd al-Rahman is not among them, behead them, and if three days passed and they didn't reach an agreement on anyone, behead them all".

Al-Yaqoubi further adds that many negotiations took place in these three days and the result was hesitant between Ali and Uthman. Following the instructions of Umar, Abd al-Rahman ibn Awf spent three days after Umar's passing engaged in prayer, supplication, and seeking divine guidance (Istikhara), while also consulting with men of wisdom to select the next Caliph. Abd al-Rahman asked Ali: If we pledge allegiance to you, would you be willing to follow the Book of God (Quran) and the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah and behave in the manner of the two previous caliphs (Umar and Abu Bakr)? Ali's answer to Abd al-Rahman was: I will only follow the Book of God and the Sunnah of the Messenger of God. Abd al-Rahman asked the same question to Uthman and Uthman answered positively and accepted all the conditions and therefore he became the caliph.

Caliphate In about 650, Uthman began noticing slight differences in recitations of the Quran as Islam expanded beyond the Arabian Peninsula into Persia, the Levant, and North Africa. In order to preserve the sanctity of the text, he ordered a committee headed by Zayd ibn Thabit to use caliph Abu Bakr's copy and prepare a standardised version of the Quran. Thus, within 20 years of Muhammad's death, the Quran was committed to written form. That text became the model from which copies were made and promulgated throughout the urban centers of the Muslim world, with the other versions ordered to be burnt by Uthman.

While the Shī'ah use the same Qur'an as Sunni Muslims, they do not believe that it was first compiled by Uthman. Rather, the Shī'ah believe that the Qur'an was gathered and compiled by Muhammad during his lifetime.

Economic and social administration Sassanid style coins in circulation during the reign of Uthman, (Pahlavi scripts, crescent-star, fire altar, depictions of Khosrow II, Arabic bismillāh in margin).

Uthman was a businessman and a successful trader from his youth, which contributed greatly to the Rashidun Caliphate. Umar had established a public allowance and, on assuming office, Uthman increased it by about 25%. Umar had, as part of his desire for the Arabs to remain a class of rulers and warriors, forbade them to purchase agricultural land or become farmers in conquered territories. Uthman withdrew these restrictions, as the trade could not flourish. Uthman also permitted people to draw loans from the public treasury. Under Umar, it had been laid down as a policy that the lands in conquered territories were not to be distributed among the combatants but were to remain the property of the previous owners. The army felt dissatisfied at this decision, but Umar suppressed the opposition with a strong hand. Uthman followed the policy devised by Umar and there were more conquests, and the revenues from land increased considerably. In general, Uthman asserted that he had the right to us the public funds as best he judged fit. His economic reforms had far-reaching effects, and his reign is considered to have marked a period of prosperity for the Rashidun Caliphate.

Military expansion

During his rule, Uthman's military-style was more autonomical in nature as he delegated much military authority to his trusted kinsmen – e.g., Abd Allah ibn Amir, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan and Abd Allah ibn Sa'd – unlike Umar's more centralized policy. Consequently, this more independent policy allowed more expansion until Sindh, in modern Pakistan, which had not been touched during the tenure of Umar. The conquest of Armenia had begun by the 640s.

Mu'awiya had been appointed the governor of Syria by Umar in 639 to stop Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars. He succeeded his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, who died in a plague, along with Abu Ubayda ibn al-Jarrah, the governor before him, and 25,000 other people. Now under Uthman's rule in 649, Mu'awiya was allowed to set up a navy, manned by Monophysitic Christians, Copts, and Jacobite Syrian Christian sailors and Muslim troops, which defeated the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.

In Hijri year 15 , Uthman sent Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and Abd Allah ibn Sa'd to reconquer the Maghreb, where he met the army of Gregory the Patrician, Exarch of Africa and relative of Heraclius, which is recorded to have numbered between 120,000 and 200,000 soldiers, The opposing forces clashed at Sabuthilag (or Sufetula), which became the name of this battle. Records from al-Bidayah wal Nihayah state that Ibn Sa'd's troops were completely surrounded by Gregory's army. However, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr spotted Gregory in his chariot and asked Abd Allah ibn Sa'd to lead a small detachment to intercept him. The interception was successful, and Gregory was slain by Ibn al-Zubayr's ambush party. Consequently, the morale of Byzantine army started crumbling and soon they were routed. after the conquest of northern Africa was completed, Abd Allah ibn Sa'd continued to Spain. Other prominent Muslim historians, like Ibn Kathir, have also quoted the same narration. In the description of this campaign, two of Abd Allah ibn Sa 'd's generals, Abdullah ibn Nafiah ibn Husain and Abdullah ibn Nafi ibn Abdul Qais, were ordered to invade the coastal areas of Spain by sea, aided by a Berber force. They allegedly succeeded in conquering the coastal areas of Al-Andalus. It is not known where the Muslim force landed, what resistance they met, and what parts of Spain they actually conquered. However, it is clear that the Muslims did conquer some portion of Spain during the caliphate of Uthman, presumably establishing colonies on its coast. On this occasion, Uthman is reported to have addressed a letter to the invading force:

Abd Allah ibn Sa'd also achieved success in the Caliphate's first decisive naval battle against the Byzantine Empire, the Battle of the Masts.

To the east, Ahnaf ibn Qais, chief of Banu Tamim and a veteran commander who conquered Shushtar earlier, launched a series of further military expansions by further mauling Yazdegerd III near Oxus River in Turkmenistan and later crushing a military coalition of Sassanid loyalists and Hephthalites in the Siege of Herat.

In the next year, in 652, Futuh al-Buldan of Baladhuri writes that Balochistan was re-conquered during the campaign against the revolt in Kermān, under the command of Majasha ibn Mas'ud. It was the first time that western Balochistan had come directly under the laws of the Caliphate and it paid an agricultural tribute. The military campaigns under Uthman's rule were generally successful, except for a few in Nubia, on the lower Nile.

Public opposition to Uthman's policies Reasons for the opposition Noting an increase in anti-government tension around the Caliphate, Uthman's administration decided to determine its origins, extent, and aims. Some time around 654, Uthman called all twelve provincial governors to Medina to discuss the problem. During this Council of Governors, Uthman ordered that all resolutions of the council be adopted according to local circumstances. Later, in the Majlis al Shurah (council of ministers), it was suggested to Uthman that reliable agents be sent to various provinces to attempt to determine the source of the discontent. Uthman accordingly sent Muhammad ibn Maslamah to Kufa, Usama ibn Zayd to Basra, Ammar ibn Yasir to Egypt, and Abd Allah ibn Umar to Syria. The agents sent to Kufa, Basra and Syria reported that all was well – the people were generally satisfied with the administration, although some individuals had minor personal grievances. Ammar ibn Yasir, the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Medina. Rebels there had been issuing propaganda in favour of making Ali caliph. Ammar ibn Yasir, who had been affiliated with Ali, abandoned Uthman for the Egyptian opposition. Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, the governor of Egypt, reported about the opposition's activities instead. He wanted to take action against Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (Ali's foster son), Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa (Uthman's adopted son), and Ammar ibn Yasir.

Uthman's attempts to appease the dissidents In 655, Uthman directed those with any grievance against the administration, as well as the governors and "Amils" throughout the caliphate, to assemble at Mecca for the Hajj, promising that all legitimate grievances would be redressed. Accordingly, large delegations from various cities came to present their grievances before the gathering.

The rebels realised that the people in Mecca supported Uthman and were not inclined to listen to them.

Rebels in Medina From Egypt, Kufa, and Basra, contingents of about 1,000 people apiece were sent to Medina, each with instructions to assassinate Uthman and overthrow the government. Representatives of the Egyptian contingent waited on Ali and offered him the Caliphate, but he turned them down. Representatives of the contingent from Kufa waited on Al-Zubayr, and those from Basra waited on Talha, each offering them their allegiance as the next Caliph, but both were similarly turned down. By proposing alternatives to Uthman as Caliph, the rebels swayed public opinion in Medina to the point where Uthman's faction could no longer offer a united front. Uthman had the active support of the Umayyads and a few other people in Medina.

Siege of Uthman The early stage of the siege of Uthman's house was not severe, but, as the days passed, the rebels intensified the pressure against Uthman. With the departure of the pilgrims from Medina to Mecca, the rebel position was strengthened further, and as a consequence the crisis deepened. The rebels understood that, after the Hajj, the Muslims, gathered at Mecca from all parts of the Caliphate, might march to Medina to relieve Uthman. They therefore decided to take action against Uthman before the pilgrimage was over. During the siege, Uthman was asked by his supporters, who outnumbered the rebels, to let them fight, but Uthman refused in an effort to avoid bloodshed among Muslims. Unfortunately for Uthman, violence still occurred. The gates of the house of Uthman were shut and guarded by the warrior Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr,

Causes of anti-Uthman revolt

The actual reason for the anti-Uthman movement is disputed among the Shia and Sunni Muslims. According to Heather Keaney, Uthman, as a caliph, relied solely on his own volition in picking his cabinet, which led to decisions that bred resistance within the Muslim community. Indeed, his style of governance made Uthman one of the most controversial figures in Islamic history.

The resistance against Uthman arose because he favoured family members when choosing governors, reasoning that he would be able to exert more influence on their governance and, consequently, strengthen the feudal system he was working to establish. His instinct proved misguided, however, as his appointees ultimately exercised more control over how he conducted business than he had anticipated, and were even able to govern their provinces autocratically. Indeed, many anonymous letters were written to the leading companions of Muhammad, complaining about the alleged tyranny of Uthman's appointed governors. Moreover, letters were sent to the leaders of public opinion in different provinces concerning the reported abuse of power by Uthman's family. This contributed to unrest in the empire and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter in an attempt to ascertain the authenticity of the rumours. Wilferd Madelung discredits the alleged role of Abd Allah ibn Saba in the rebellion against Uthman and observes that "few if any modern historians would accept Sayf's legend of Ibn Saba".

Bernard Lewis, a 20th-century scholar, says of Uthman:

Assassination

On 17 June 656 (corresponding to 18 Dhu al-Hijja), after finding the gates of Uthman's house guarded, a group of rebels scaled the walls from a neighboring house and entered his room. Among them was Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, the son of the first caliph, who reportedly seized Uthman by his beard. According to many accounts, after Uthman reminded him of his father's friendship, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr felt remorse and withdrew from the scene; however, other rebels then moved in and fatally stabbed the Caliph while he was reciting the Quran.

According to a narration regarded as likely to be a legend by Madelung, Uthman's wives threw themselves on his body to shield him. Na'ila bint al-Furafisa, one of his wives, extended her hand to block a blade. Her fingers were severed, and she was shoved aside. The following strike killed Uthman. A few of Uthman's slaves retaliated, and one of them succeeded in killing one of the assassins before being murdered by the rebels.

Funeral

After the body of Uthman had been in the house for three days, Na'ila approached some of his supporters to assist in his burial, but only about a dozen people responded, including Marwan, Zayd ibn Thabit, Huwatib bin Alfarah, Jubayr ibn Mut'im, Abu Jahm bin Hudaifa, Hakim bin Hazam and Niyar bin Mukarram. The body was lifted at dusk, and because of the blockade, no coffin could be procured. The body was not washed. Thus, Uthman was carried to the graveyard in the clothes that he was wearing at the time of his assassination.

Na'ila followed the funeral with a lamp, but, in order to maintain secrecy, the lamp had to be extinguished. Na'ila was accompanied by some women, including Uthman's daughter.

Burial The body was carried to Jannat al-Baqi for burial. Apparently, some people gathered there and resisted Uthman's burial in the Muslim cemetery. Accordingly, Uthman's supporters later buried him in the Jewish graveyard behind Al-Baqi Cemetery. Some decades later, the Umayyad rulers demolished the wall separating the two cemeteries and merged the Jewish cemetery into the Muslim one to ensure that his tomb was now inside a Muslim cemetery.

The funeral prayers were led by Jubayr ibn Mut'im, and the dead body was lowered into the grave with little ceremony. After burial, Na'ila and A'isha wanted to speak but were discouraged from doing so due to possible danger from the rioters. He is said to have had large limbs, with fleshy shins and long, hairy forearms. Though commonly described as having been very handsome with a fair complexion, He had a full reddish-brown beard to which he applied saffron As a way of taking care of Muhammad's wives, he doubled their allowances. Uthman was not completely plain and simple, however, he built a palace for himself in Medina, known as Al-Zawar, with a notable feature being doors of precious wood. Although Uthman paid for the palace with his own money, Shia Muslims considered it his first step towards ruling like a king.

Assessment and legacy Uthman is said to have been the first caliph to adopt the title ("deputy of God") as well as ("trustee of God"). The general opinions of the Sunni Muslim community and Sunni historians regarding Uthman's rule are positive, particularly regarding his leniency; in their view, the kinsmen he appointedsuch as Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan and Abd Allah ibn Amirproved effective in both military and political management. By contrast, historians like Muhammad Zaki accused Uthman of corruption, particularly in the case of Al-Walid ibn Uqba.

Perhaps the most significant act of Uthman was allowing Mu'awiya and Abd Allah ibn Sa'd, governors of Syria and Northern Africa (respectively), to form the first integrated Muslim navy in the Mediterranean Sea, rivalling the maritime dominance of the Byzantine Empire. Ibn Sa'd's conquest of the southeast coast of Spain, his stunning victory at the Battle of the Masts in Lycia, and expansion to other coasts of the Mediterranean Sea are generally overlooked. These achievements gave birth to the first Muslim standing navy, thus enabling the first Muslim maritime conquest of Cyprus This subsequently paved the way for the establishment of several Muslim states in the Mediterranean Sea during the later Umayyad and Abbasid eras, which came in the form of the Emirate of Sicily and its minor vassal the Emirate of Bari, as well as the Emirate of Crete and the Aghlabid dynasty.

From an expansionist perspective, Uthman is regarded as skilled in conflict management, as is evident from how he dealt with the heated and troubled early Muslim conquered territories, such as Kufa and Basra, by directing the hot-headed Arab settlers to new military campaigns and expansions. This not only resulted in settling the internal conflicts in those settlements but also further expanded Rashidun territory to as far west as southern Iberia and as far east as Sindh, Pakistan.

Religious impact Uthman is credited with bringing unity to the current version of the Quran. Uthman observed this brought with it some challenges. For example, even men of the same tribe would at times disagree over how the Quran would be recited. Although some of the companions of Mohammed had attempted to bring together collections of the Quran, it had not yet been standardized. Anas bin Malik reported "Hudhaifa was afraid of their (the people of Syria and Iraq) differences in the recitation of the Qur'an, so he said to Uthman, "O chief of the Believers! Save this nation before they differ about the Book" So Uthman sent a message to Hafsa saying, "Send us the manuscripts of the Qur'an so that we may compile the Qur'anic materials in perfect copies and return the manuscripts to you". Hafsa sent it to Uthman. Uthman then ordered Zayd ibn Thabit, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Sa'id ibn al-As and Abd al-Rahman ibn Harith to rewrite the manuscripts..." This order from Uthman gave the final form of the Quran we have today, and although a few small variants do exist in some areas, most of the variant readings and recitations have been lost or destroyed.

In Media TV and films Uthman has been portrayed in several productions. Uthman is prominently portrayed in the 2012 television series Omar, which depicts his role among Muhammad's companions and later follows his appointment as the third caliph. The series portrays the political and military developments of his reign and the events that led to his assassination in Medina. Uthman's life and caliphate have also been discussed in documentaries and historical programs dealing with the Rashidun caliphs and the early Muslim community.