Rajaraja I

Rājarāja I (Middle Tamil: Rājarāja Colan; Rājarāja Śōḷa; 3 November 947 – January/February 1014), also known as Rajaraja the Great, was a Chola emperor who reigned from 985 to 1014. He was known for his conquests of southern India and the Anuradhapura kingdom of Sri Lanka, as well as increasing Chola influence across the Indian Ocean. Rajaraja's birth name is Arulmozhi Varman.

Rajaraja's empire encompassed vast territories, including regions of the Pandya country, the Chera country, and northern Sri Lanka. He also extended his influence over strategic islands such as Lakshadweep, Thiladhunmadulu atoll, and parts of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. His conquests were not limited to the south; he also launched successful campaigns against the Western Gangas and the Western Chalukyas, extending Chola authority as far as the Tungabhadra River. In the east, Rajaraja faced fierce opposition from the Telugu Chola king Jata Choda Bhima over control of Vengi. This region held significant strategic importance due to its access to resources and trade routes. The conflict between the two rulers intensified as they vied for dominance in the region, resulting in significant battles and shifting allegiances.

Rajaraja I commissioned the construction of the Rajarajeshwaram Temple in the Chola capital of Thanjavur, revered as one of the most prominent examples of the medieval South Indian architectural style. Additionally, during his reign, important Tamil literary works by poets such as Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar were gathered and compiled into a single collection known as the Thirumurai. This earned him the title of 'Thirumurai Kanda Cholar' . He initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of Tamil country into individual units known as valanadus. Rajaraja died in 1014, and was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola I.

Early life

Rajaraja was the son of the Chola king Parantaka II, also known as Sundara Chola, and his wife Vanavan. As recorded in the Thiruvalangadu copper-plate inscription, his birth name was Arun Mozhi Varman, meaning "The Word of Sun Clan". He was born around 947 during the Tamil month of , under the Sadhayam star. The Government of Tamil Nadu recognises his birthdate as 3 November 947. Rajaraja had an elder brother, Aditha II, and an elder sister, Kundavai.

Rajaraja's accession marked the end of a period of competing claims to the Chola throne, following the reign of his great-grandfather Parantaka I. After Parantaka I, his elder son Gandaraditya became king. However, upon Gandaraditya's death, his son Madhurantakan was still a minor, so the throne passed to Parantaka I's younger son, Arinjaya. Arinjaya soon died, and his son Parantaka II (Sundara Chola) succeeded him. It was decided that Sundara Chola would be succeeded by Madhurantakan, likely due to Sundara's preference. However, according to the Thiruvalangadu inscription of Rajaraja's son, Rajendra I, the succession plan may have been made by Rajaraja himself.

Aditha II died under mysterious circumstances, with inscriptions suggesting he may have been assassinated. Shortly afterwards, Sundara Chola also died, enabling Madhurantakan to assume the throne with the title Uttama Chola. Following Uttama Chola's death, Arul Moli Varman ascended the throne in mid-985 and adopted the regnal name Rajaraja, meaning "King among Kings."

Military conquests

When Rajaraja came to power, he inherited a small kingdom centered around the Thanjavur–Tiruchirappalli region, the heart of traditional Chola territory. He transformed this kingdom from one that was recovering from attacks by the Rashtrakuta Empire into one that was a well-organised empire with a powerful army and navy. Under his rule, the northern kingdom of Vengi became closely allied with the Cholas, and their influence expanded along the eastern coast all the way up to Kalinga in the north.

Rajaraja Chola Thiruvalangadu plates states that, Arulmolivarman :

The Larger Leiden plates States that Rajaraja,

"conquered the Pandya, Tulu, Kerala, Simhalendra and Satyashraya ; destroyed ships at Kandalur-Salai , captured Vengainadu(Vengi), Gangapadi, Nulambapadi, Tadigaipadi, Kudamalainadu, Kollam, Kalingam, and Ilam(Sri Lanka ) ; and removed the splendour of the Seliyas(i.e.,Pandyas)." During this campaign, he subdued the Nolamba dynasty, who were previously vassals of the Ganga dynasty. These territories were initially under the suzerainty of the Rashtrakutas, who had been defeated by the Western Chalukyas in 973. Consequently, the Cholas found themselves in direct conflict with the Chalukyas.

Battle of Gangavadi

By 1004, Rajaraja had conquered the Gangavadi province. He established control over the western part of Gangavadi, ruled by the Changalvas, and over Kodagu, governed by the Kongalvas, who were then made vassals of the Chola Empire. In 1004 AD Raja Raja Chola encamped in Gangavadi province, and soon Chalukya army invaded. In the Battle of Gangavadi, Raja Raja Chola defeated the invading Chalukya army and secured Gangavadi Province.

Battle of Annigeri

Raja Raja Chola led the campaign in Ratta Padi in 1003–1004 AD and achieved victory in many battles. Raja Raja Chola I defeated Satyashraya in the Battle of Annigeri and successfully conquered Annigeri Province. In this battle Satyashraya was assisted by his brother Dasavarman and General Dandanayaka Kesava. Dandanayaka Kesava was governor of the Belvola-300 and Puligere-300 divisions, which are located in Annigeri Province. The Tiruvalangadu plates of Rajendra Chola state that Raja Raja defeated Satyashraya who "fled to avoid misery from the attack of his (i.e., Arulmolivarman's) ocean-like army; (still) misery found a (permanent) abode in him. In this battle Satyashraya's brother, Prince Dasavarman, was killed, and Chalukya general Dandanayaka Kesava was taken prisoner. After Raja Raja Chola returned to his capital with booty of some gold flowers and treasures, which he dedicated to the temple of Thanjavur.

Siege of Unkal

Raja Raja Chola diverted attention from Vengi affairs to the Satyashraya to counteroffensive and sent an army under Crown Prince Rajendra Chola in Chalukya Country. Rajendra marched with a 900,000-strong army and Captured Santalige, Kadambalige, Banavasi, Kogali and besieged the fort of Unkallu in the modern Unkal district located in the Dharwad district. In this ensuing battle, the Cholas defeated the Chalukyas, and the Chalukya commander, Lenka Keta, was killed. After Rajendra Chola successfully captured Unkallu Fort and then encamped at Donur.

Battle of Donur

Following the Siege of Unkallu Fort, Rajendra battled against Satyashraya, who was opposing him in Donur. In the Battle of Donur, Rajendra chola defeated Satyashraya and successfully raided Banavasi, Donur (in the Bijapur region), Unkal (near modern Hubli), Kudala Sangama and parts of the Raichur Doab and secured Gangavadi and Nolambavadi. But this conquest and all raids in Chalukya country only lasted until Satyashraya reconquered all territories up to Thungapathra.

An inscription attributed to Irivabedanga Satyashraya from Dharwar acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accuses Rajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara(Donur in Bijapur district), blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by the Dharmaśāstras. Historians such as James Heitzman and Wolfgang Schenkluhn interpret this confrontation as indicative of personal animosity between the rulers of the Chola and Western Chalukya kingdoms, akin to historical conflicts between the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas of Kanchi.

Vengi kingdom Meanwhile, the Vengi kingdom was under the rule of Jata Choda Bhima, a member of the Telugu Cholas branch. Notably, Rajaraja cemented an alliance between the Chola Dynasty and the Eastern Chalukya kingdom by arranging the marriage of his daughter, Kundavai, to the next viceroy of Vengi, Vimaladitya. This strategic union ensured the future succession of Rajaraja's descendants to the throne of the eastern Chalukya kingdom. Satyashraya retaliated by invading the Vengi country in 1006 A.D. and placed Saktivaiman on the Vengi Throne. Raja Raja Chola diverted the Chalukyas to send a big army under Prince Rajendra Chola in Chalukya country. So Satyashraya, without having reinforcement to deal with the Chola army, called back his general Bayal Nambi, who advanced up to Chebrollu. Satyastraya did not permanently recapture Vengi. He made attempts, but the Cholas successfully defended their influence. Additionally, a similar inscription in Channapatna describes Rajaraja defeating the Hoysalas.General Aprameya defeated Hoysala leaders manjaga, kaliga(or kali – ganga),Nigavarma and others in the Battle of Kalavur .winning by his valour in the plain of Kalavur a name to endure for ever. In certain inscriptions found in Karnataka, the term "Kudagu-malai-nadu" is used instead of "Kuda-malai-nadu". Scholars generally believe that this region corresponds to Coorg (Kudagu).

The king's conquest of Malainadu is described in the Vikrama Chola Ula, where it is said that he achieved it in just one day, crossing 18 mountain passes. According to the Kulottunga Chola Ula, Rajaraja was depicted as beheading 18 people and burning down Udagai. Additionally, the Kalingathupparani references the establishment of Chadaya Nalvizha in Udiyar Mandalam, the seizure of Udagai, and the plundering of several elephants from the area. The Tiruppalanam inscription from 999 records the king's offering of an idol obtained as spoils from Malainadu.

Rajaraja I and Rajendra I are described as the greatest Chola rulers because of these conquests.

Personal life Rajaraja married several women, including the following: Vanathi aka Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār, Dantisakti Vitanki aka Lokamadevi, Panchavan Madeviyar, Chola Mahadevi, Trailokya Mahadevi, Lata Mahadevi, Prithvi Mahadevi, Meenavan Mahadevi, Viranarayani and Villavan Mahadevi. He had at least three daughters and two sons. The older son, Rajendra, was born to Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār. The younger son was named Araiyan Rajarajan, and the identity of his mother is unknown. He had his first daughter Kundavai with Lokamadevi who eventually married Chalukya prince Vimaladithan. Rajaraja had two other daughters. Rajaraja died in 1014 in the Tamil month of Maka and was succeeded by Rajendra Chola I.

Administration Imperial coin of Chola King Rajaraja I (985–1014). Uncertain Tamilnadu mint. Legend "Chola, conqueror of the Gangas" in Tamil, seated tiger with two fish.

Before the reign of Rajaraja I, portions of the Chola territory were ruled by hereditary lords and princes who were in a loose alliance with the Chola rulers. Rajaraja initiated a project of land survey and assessment in 1000 which led to the reorganisation of the empire into units known as valanadus. From the reign of Rajaraja I until the reign of Vikrama Chola in 1133, the hereditary lords and local princes were either replaced or turned into dependent officials. To promote trade, he sent the first Chola mission to China. Furthermore, his elder sister Kundavai assisted him in the administration and management of temples.

Officials

Towards the end of his reign, Rajaraja appointed Rajendra Chola I as co-regent, who served as the supreme commander of the northern and northwestern territories. Under his rule, the administrative system was expanded, resulting in a greater number of offices and officials documented in Chola records compared to previous eras. Other officials named in inscriptions include the Bana prince Narasimhavarman, the general Senapathi Krishnan Raman, the Samanta chief Vallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan, the revenue official Irayiravan Pallavarayan, and Kuruvan Ulagalandan, who organised the country-wide land surveys.

Religious policy

Rajaraja was a follower of the Shaivite denomination of Hinduism, but he also dedicated several temples to Vishnu. Rajaraja called himself Shivapada Shekhara (IAST: Śivapāda Śekhara), literally, 'the one who places his crown at the feet of Shiva'.

The Buddhist monastery of Chudamani Vihara was constructed in the 11th century in Nagapattinam by the Sailendra king of Srivijaya, Sri Mara Vijayattungavarman, with the support of Rajaraja I. It was named Chudamani (or Chulamani) Vihara after King Sri Mara's father. According to the small Leyden grant, this Vihara was known as Rajaraja-perumpalli during the reign of Kulottunga I.

Arts and architecture

After hearing short excerpts of the Tevaram in his court, Rajaraja embarked on a mission to recover the hymns. He sought the help of Nambiyandar Nambi. It is believed that by divine intervention Nambi found the presence of scripts, in the form of cadijam leaves half-eaten by white ants in a chamber inside the second precinct in Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. The brahmanas (Dikshitars) in the temple opposed the mission, but Rajaraja intervened by consecrating the images of the saint-poets through the streets of Chidambaram. Rajaraja thus became known as 'Tirumurai Kanda Cholan', meaning 'One who saved the Tirumurai '. In his work Nambiyandar Nambi Puranam (alias Tirumurai Kanda Puranam), Nambi identifies his patron as "Rasarasamannan-Abhayakula-sekharan" . At that time, Shiva temples only had images of god forms, but after the advent of Rajaraja, the images of the Nayanar saints were also placed inside the temple. Nambi organised the hymns of three saint poets—Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar—as the first seven books. He included Manickavasagar's "Tirukovayar" and "Tiruvacakam" as the 8th book, and the hymns of nine other saints as the 9th book. The "Tirumandiram" of Tirumular was designated as the 10th book, while 40 hymns by 12 other poets constituted the 11th book. Additionally, Nambi added Tirutotanar Tiruvanthathi, the sacred anthathi of the labours of the 63 Nayanar saints, along with his own hymns as the 12th book. The initial seven books were later recognised as the Tevaram. With the addition of Sekkizhar's Periya Puranam (1135) as the twelfth book, the entire Saiva canon became known as Tirumurai, the holy scripture. Consequently, Saiva literature now encompasses approximately 600 years of religious, philosophical, and literary development.

There are no existing contemporary portraits or statues of Rajaraja. The bronze figure purportedly depicting him at the Thanjavur temple is spurious and of recent origin.

Brihadisvara Temple

During 1010, Rajaraja built the Peruvudaiyar Temple (also known as Periya Kovil, RajaRajeswara Temple, and Rajarajeswaram) in Thanjavur and dedicated it to Shiva. The temple and the capital were centres of both religious and economic activity. The temple is one of the largest temples in India and is an example of Dravidian architecture of the Chola period. Along with Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple and Airavatesvara temple, Peruvudaiyar temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site known as the "Great Living Chola Temples".

Coins

Prior to Rajaraja's reign, Chola coins featured the tiger emblem on the obverse, along with the fish and bow emblems representing the Pandya and Chera Dynasties, while the reverse side displayed the name of the King. However, a new type of coin emerged during Rajaraja's rule. These new coins showcased the figure of the standing king on the obverse side, while the reverse side depicted a seated goddess. The coins spread across much of southern India and were copied by Sri Lankan kings.

Inscriptions

Due to Rajaraja's desire to record his military achievements, he recorded the important events of his life in stone. An inscription in Tamil from Mulbagal in Karnataka shows his accomplishments as early as the 19th year. An excerpt from such a Meikeerthi, an inscription recording great accomplishments, follows:

Rajaraja recorded all the grants made to the Thanjavur temple and his achievements. He also preserved the records of his predecessors. An inscription of his reign found at Tirumalavadi records an order of the king to the effect that the central shrine of the Vaidyanatha temple at the place should be rebuilt and that, before pulling down the walls, the inscriptions engraved on them should be copied in a book. The records were subsequently re-engraved on the walls from the book after the rebuilding was finished.

In popular culture

Ponniyin Selvan: I – a 2022 film based on Kalki Krishnamurthy's 1955 novel Ponniyin Selvan, which deals with the succession troubles during the reign of Sundara Chola and the death of the elder prince, Aditha Karikalan, portrayed by Tamil actor Vikram. The role of the younger prince, Arulmozhi Varman, also known as Ponniyin Selvan and the future Rajaraja I, was played by Tamil actor Ravi Mohan. The sequel, Ponniyin Selvan: II, was released in 2023. Rajaraja Cholan – a 1973 Tamil film starring Sivaji Ganesan. Ponniyin Selvan – a novel by Kalki, which revolves around the early life of Rajaraja, the mysteries surrounding the death of Aditha Karikalan, and the subsequent accession of Uththama Chola to the Chola throne. Nandipurathu Nayagi by Vembu Vikiraman revolves around the ascension of Uttama Chola to the throne and Rajaraja's naval expedition. Rajaraja Cholan by Kathal Ramanathan. Kandalur Vasantha Kumaran Kathai by Sujatha, which deals with the situations leading Rajaraja to invade Kandalur. Rajakesari and Cherar Kottai by Gokul Seshadri deal with the Kandalur invasion and its after-effects. Bharat Ek Khoj – a 1988 historical drama that depicts Rajaraja Chola (played by Om Puri) in episodes 22 and 23. Kaviri Mainthan – a 2007 novel by Anusha Venkatesh. Udayaar – a book by Tamil author Balakumaran, which deals with Rajaraja's later years and Rajendra Chola I's ascension.