Parantaka I

Parantaka Chola I (; 873–955) was the Chola emperor from 907 until his death in 955. During his 48-year-long reign, he annexed the Pandyas by defeating Rajasimhan II and, in the Deccan, won the Battle of Vallala against the Rashtrakutas in 911.

Invasion of the Pandya kingdom Parantaka I continued the expansion started by his father, and invaded the Pandya kingdom in 915. He captured the Pandyan capital Madurai and assumed the title Madurain-konda (Capturer of Madurai). The Pandyan ruler Maravarman Rajasinha II sought the help of Kassapa V of Anuradhapura, who sent an army to his aid. Parantaka defeated the combined army at the Battle of Vellore, a decisive victory for the Cholas, but this victory was narrow. At the Battle of Vellur, during the first attempt, the Cholas defeated the Pandyan army and slew the Lankan army. According to the Chronicles, Ceylon troops made the second attempt; most of the Ceylonese troops had caught a plague which caused the death of most of the troops, including the commander. This caused the remaining Ceylonese troops to be recalled by King Kassapa V. This second attempt was not mentioned in Chola sources. Then the Pandya king fled into exile in Sri Lanka, and Parantaka I completed his conquest of the entire Pandya country.

Parantaka wanted to celebrate his victory with a coronation in Madurai during which he was to invest himself with the insignia of Pandyan monarchy. However, his attempt failed as the Pandyan king had already carried the royal insignia away and left them in the safe custody of the Lankan king. Now, at that time, the Senapati here (in Ceylon) was absent in a rebellious border province. The king had him fetched and sent him forth to begin the war. The Senapati set forth, delivered battle and fell in the fight. Thereupon, the king (Udaya) took the crown and the rest and betook himself to Rohana. The Chola troops marched forward, but upon finding no way to enter Rohana, they withdrew and returned to their own country. Although the Chola forces retreated with a large amount of plunder, Sri Lankan sources claims a successful counter-invasion by Ceylon and they were able to recover the loot - an event entirely unmentioned in the Chola records. During his Lankan campaign (c. 946–947 CE), Parantaka I defeated the Sinhalese forces and sacked Anuradhapura, although he was unable to secure lasting control over the region. Mahavamsa also records that the Lankan king Udaya IV took the Pandya crown and the jewels and hid himself in the Rohana hills. After his exploits in the Pandya country and in Lanka, he took the title of Maduraiyum Eelamum Konda Parakesarivarman – Parakesarivarman who conquered Madurai and Sri Lanka.

War against the Rashtrakutas

Background

Aditya I had two sons, namely Parantaka I and Kannara Deva. The eldest son was Parantaka, born to a Chera wife; the youngest son was Kannara Devan, born to a Rashtrakuta wife. Following Aditya I's death, Rashtrakuta king Krishna II tried to exert his influence in the Chola country by placing his grandson Kannara Deva on the throne.

Battle of vallala

In 907 CE, Parantaka became king. Disappointed by this, Krishna II invaded the Chola country. On the Rashtrakuta side, prince Indra III led the battle, while the Chola side was led by King Parantaka and Prince Rajaditya. In the year 911, in the Battle of vallala, a large number of Rashtrakuta soldiers died and their army began to weaken. Krishna II withdrew, and his forces retreated. The Cholas advanced, driving the Rashtrakutas completely out of their territory and securing a decisive victory. Parantaka Chola's early series of triumphs included this critical Rashtrakuta War.

Conflict with Rashtrakuta feudatories

Banas and Vaidumbas

During the early phase of Parantaka I’s conflict with the Rashtrakuta Empire and its allies, campaigns were directed against the Bana and Vaidumba chiefs. According to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, the Bana rulers Vikramaditya II and his son Vijayaditya III were defeated in these campaigns, leading to the incorporation of Bana territory under Chola control, at times administered through loyal subordinates. The Vaidumbas, who were associated with the Banas, also appear to have been reduced to submission during this period, with some chiefs seeking refuge in Rashtrakuta domains. These events are generally placed in the early decades of Parantaka I’s reign.

Against Nolamba king Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja

During the 29th year of Parantaka I's reign, Chola influence appears to have extended into regions near Nolambavadi. A Kannada inscription from this regnal year (c. 936 CE) of parantaka I, found at Bairakur in present-day Karnataka, indicates a possible conflict between Parantaka I and the Nolamba ruler Iriva Nolamba Diliparaja, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta Empire. While the evidence is not conclusive, some historians suggest that this encounter may have ended in favour of the Cholas, pointing to a possible success of Parantaka I over a Rashtrakuta subordinate.

Initial encounter with krishna III

Some historians note that the struggle between Parantaka I and the Rashtrakutas was not uniformly favourable to the latter. The Kanyakumari inscription of Virarajendra states that Parantaka I defeated Krishna III. Historian A. S. Altekar interprets this reference as possibly relating to an earlier engagement before 944 CE, suggesting that Parantaka I achieved a temporary success against Krishna III before the renewed Rashtrakuta invasion that culminated in the Battle of Takkolam (c. 949 CE). K. A. Nilakanta Sastri also questioned the early dating of the Siddhalingamadam inscription attributing the conquest of Kanchi and Tanjavur to Krishna III in 944–45, arguing that firm Rashtrakuta occupation of Tondaimandalam occurred only after the Battle of Takkolam.

The copper-plate inscriptions detail Parantaka I's promotion of agricultural prosperity by the digging of numerous canals all over the country. Besides Kotanta Rama, Parantaka had several other sons; Arikulakesari, Gandaraditya and Uttamasili.

Parantaka maintained a close alliance with the Chera rulers of Kerala, and this relationship was further strengthened through a dynastic marriage. He married a Chera princess, who later became the mother of his son, Rajaditya. A member of the retinue of pillaiyar (prince) Rajadittadeva gave a gift to the Vishnu temple at Tirunavalur/Tirumanallur in the 32nd year of Parantaka I. Tirunavalur was also known as "Rajadittapuram" after Rajaditya. A large number of warriors from the aristocratic families of the Chera kingdom formed part of the retinue of this Chola prince. In the 39th year of Parantaka I, his daughter-in-law, Mahadevadigal, a queen of Rajaditya and the daughter of Lataraja donated a lamp to the temple of Rajadityesvara for the merit of her brother. He had at least two daughters: Viramadevi and Anupama. Uttamasili does not appear to have lived long enough to succeed to the Chola throne.

He bore numerous epithets such as Viranarayana, Virakirti, Vira-Chola, Vikrama-Chola, Irumadi-Sola (Chola with two crowns alluding to the Chola and the Pandya kingdoms), Devendran (lord of the gods), Chakravartin (the emperor), Panditavatsalan (fond of learned men), Kunjaramallan (the wrestler with elephants) and Surachulamani (the crest jewel of the heroes).

Parantaka I died in 955. His second son Gandaraditya succeeded him.

Inscriptions

The following is an inscription of Parantaka I from Tiruvorriyur. It is important as it shows that his dominions included regions beyond Thondaimandalam:

This is of his son Arinjaya making a donation. Once again it is from Tiruvorriyur:

There are also several inscriptions of his son Rajaditya from Tirunavalur. One such inscription is the following from the temple of Rajadityesvara in Tirunavalur. The temple was also called Tiruttondîsvaram:

Chola-Chera relations (c. 9th-10th centuries CE)