Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiqi

Abd al-Rahman ibn Abd Allah Al-Ghafiqi (; died 732), was an Arab Umayyad commander and governor who led Andalusian Umayyad forces against the Franks. He is most famous for leading the Umayyad forces during the Battle of Tours (also known as the Battle of Poitiers) in 732. This battle, fought against the Frankish forces led by Charles Martel.

Al-Ghafiqi was appointed as the governor of al-Andalus around 730 and led several successful military campaigns across the Pyrenees into Frankish territories where he was successful in sacking and capturing the city of Bordeaux, after defeating Duke Odo of Aquitaine in the battle outside the city, and then again defeating a second army of Duke Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne —where the western chroniclers state, "God alone knows the number of the slain". His army advanced deep into modern-day France before being confronted by Charles Martel's forces near the city of Tours. Al-Ghafiqi was killed in the battle, the Umayyad forces retreated, and this event is often seen as a pivotal moment that preserved Christian rule in Gaul.

Despite his defeat at Tours, al-Ghafiqi is remembered as a capable and ambitious military leader within the early history of Umayyad expansion in Gaul.

Early years From the Arab Tihamite tribe of Ghafiq, he relocated to Ifriqiya (now Tunisia), then to the stretch of the Maghreb that is now Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Mauritania, where he became acquainted with Musa ibn Nusayr and his son Abd al-Aziz, the governors of al-Andalus.

Campaigns

Battle of Toulouse Abd Al-Rahman took part in the Battle of Toulouse, where Al Samh ibn Malik was killed in 721 (102 AH) by the forces of Duke Odo of Aquitaine. After the severe defeat, he fled south along with other commanders and troops, and took over the command of Eastern Andalus. He was briefly relieved of his command, when Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi was appointed in 721. After Anbasa died in 726 in southern Gaul, several successive commanders were put in place, none of whom lasted very long.

Rebellion in Cerdanya In 730, the Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik appointed Abd Al-Rahman as wali (governor) of al-Andalus. David Levering Lewis describes him as "intelligent, eloquent, and an accomplished administrator". On hearing that Uthman ibn Naissa, the Berber deputy governor of Catalunya, had concluded an alliance with duke Odo of Aquitaine, in order to set up an independent Catalunya for himself, the governor hurried to quell the rebellion. He engaged the Berber lord's forces and killed him in 731. By some accounts, Uthman ibn Naissa killed himself.

Battle of the River Garonne

The wali assembled troops in Pamplona, called for recruits from Yemen and the Levant, and prepared to cross the Pyrenees into Gaul. Many arrived, and he crossed the Pyrenees range with an army composed primarily of Arabs. Emir Abd Al-Rahman made his way through Gascony and Aquitaine, according to one unidentified Arab, "That army went through all places like a desolating storm," sacking and capturing the city of Bordeaux, after defeating Duke Odo of Aquitaine in battle outside the city, and then again defeating a second army of Duke Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne —where the western chroniclers state, "God alone knows the number of the slain." he formed an army of Gauls and Germans approximately 30,000 strong. The invading forces, having no reason to believe the Franks were anything more than one of the various barbarian tribes that had ravaged Europe after Rome's fall, failed to scout their strength in advance. They also misjudged Charles Martel, who was determined to prevent the expansion of the Caliphate over the Pyrenees into the heart of Christian Europe. This was a disastrous mistake which led to the defeat of Abd Al-Rahman in 732 near Poitiers, south of the river Loire.

The Frankish leader chose the battlefield. Moving his army over the mountains and avoiding the open roads, he escaped detection until positioning his men on a high, wooded plain. Martel had carefully chosen the battlefield, in large part knowing the hills and trees surrounding his position would greatly hinder the Umayyad cavalry. For seven days, the two armies skirmished and maneuvered, with the Islamic forces recalling all their raiding parties, so that on the seventh day, their army was at full strength. Martel also received some reinforcements, though most historians agree he was badly outnumbered during the battle. Martel trained his men to fight in a large square, similar to the ancient Greek phalanx formation, to withstand the Umayyad heavy cavalry. The Franks held their defensive formation all day, and repulsed repeated charges by the Umayyad heavy cavalry.

According to Lewis, the Umayyad soldiers were accompanied by their families. Wives and concubines were among the casualties. Realizing their camp was being plundered, a large contingent of Abd Al-Rahman's forces broke off battle and returned to rescue their booty. Abd Al-Rahman was thus left exposed before the Frankish infantry and was killed in battle while attempting to rally his men. One reason for the defeat of the Umayyad army was their preoccupation with war booty; another was the squabbles between various ethnic and tribal factions, which led to the surviving generals being unable to agree on a single commander to take Abd Al-Rahman's place. Political factions, racial and ethnic rivalries, and personality clashes arose following his death. The varied nationalities and ethnicities present in an army drawn from all over the Caliphate, and the surviving generals, bickered among themselves, unable to agree on a commander to lead them the following day. The inability to select anyone to lead certainly contributed to the wholesale retreat of an army that was still dangerous.